Prace i Materiały Instytutu Handlu Zagranicznego nr 28

WYZWANIA GOSPODARKI GLOBALNEJ

Kolejna publikacja z serii Prace i Materiały IHZ zawiera siedemdziesiąt pięć artykułów ukazujących wyniki badań wielu naukowców z Polski oraz zagranicznych ośrodków naukowych. Prezentowana tematyka obejmuje zagadnienia dotyczące współzależności między rozwojem gospodarczym poszczególnych krajów i ich grup, a kształtowaniem się międzynarodowej wymiany handlowej i systemu finansów międzynarodowych.

Redakcja naukowa: Hanna Treder, Krystyna Żołądkiewicz

Recenzenci: Bogusława Drelich-Skulska, Przemysław Kulawczuk

Skład i łamanie: Urszula Jędryczka

Opracowanie redakcyjne: Urszula Mrzygłód, Magdalena Jażdżewska-Gutta

Projekt okładki: Wojtek Traczyk

Wydawca: Fundacja Rozwoju Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Sopot 2010.

Table of contents (abstracts):

Ładyka Stanisław, Kto zagraża dominacji Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki we współczesnej gospodarce światowej
Who threatens the dominance of the United States of America in the contemporary world economy?

The main idea of the paper is reflected in its title. The author analyses the prob¬lem of challenges facing the USA leadership in the world which result from unprecedented recent growth of Chinese economy. To address this problem, main actors of contemporary world economy are presented, followed by the analysis of directions and rate of economic growth of Chinese economy in recent three decades. Against this background, the chances for China to become the leading world power are discussed.

Reflections on the development of Chinese economy are based on statistical data covering the years 1978-2008 and include macroeconomic characteristics of China's economy, foreign direct investment, commodity and geographical pattern of foreign trade funds for research and development. The analysis draws on the reforms began by Deng Xiaoping, which created the basis for rapid changes having taken place recently in the Chinese economy. The chapter on economic rivalry between China and USA takes into consideration conclusions of the forecast prepared by National Intelligence Council (USA) of 2008 and opinions of well known researchers and journalists specializing in analyses of international economic and political relations.

Jeliński Bohdan, Polityka handlowa w gospodarce globalnej
Trade Policy in the Global Economy

Trade policy in a global economy is a particularly difficult art of compromise between what is possible and what is necessary. An additional obstacle is the economic crisis, which triggers protectionism as a natural reaction of trade partners towards the growing internal economic problems. The future of global trade is a trade policy that combines the ideas of free and fair trade, for which an inspiration can be the concept of European Union's development strategy - „Europe 2020 - a strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth".

Pearce Ruth, Increasing Trade Protectionism
Wzrost protekcjonizmu handlowego

Konsekwencją kryzysu ekonomicznego jest rosnący poziom protekcjonizmu handlowego. Z drugiej strony fiasko dotychczasowych rokowań wielostronnych w ramach Rudny Doha może spowodować zagrożenie dla zrównoważonego global¬nego wzrostu gospodarczego. Zakończenie tej rundy może spowodować wzrost go¬spodarki światowej szacowany na 300-700 mld USD. Dlatego Australia, która jest krajem członkowskim G20, popiera podjęcie zobowiązania do poszukiwania spo¬sobów do ograniczania stosowania środków protekcjonistycznych i zakończenia Rundy Doha w 2010 roku. Właśnie takie założenia zostały zasugerowane podczas Szczytu G20 w Kanadzie w czerwcu 2009 r. W szczególny sposób Australia jest zainteresowana liberalizacją w obszarze sektora rolnego, a zwłaszcza - podobnie jak inne kraje Grupy Cairns - reformą wspólnej polityki rolnej Unii Europejskiej.

Pawlak Karolina, Pozycja konkurencyjna Unii Europejskiej w światowym handlu rolnym
The European Union's competitive position in the World agricultural trade

The aim of the paper was to assess some changes in the competitive position of agrifood products exported from the European Union countries to the World mar¬ket, resulted from escalation of World agricultural trade liberalization. The computable general equilibrium model Global Trade Analysis Project was used to make some trade and competitiveness forecast. The analysis of competitiveness of the EU agrifood sector in global trade was made with the use of selected quantitative indicators of competitiveness. It was proved that further liberalization of access to agricultural markets, in order to increase the competition intensity, may cause the countries of the EU to lose some of the markets and worsen their competitive position.

Michalczyk Joanna, Ewolucja wspólnej polityki rybołówstwa Unii Europejskiej
The evolution of common fisheries policy of the European Union

The aim of the paper is to show the process of the evolution of common fisheries policy of the EU. The common fisheries policy is the instrument for the management of fisheries and aquaculture. It aims at ensuring the sustainable development of fishing activities from an environmental, economic and social point of view. The common fisheries policy concentrates on the four areas: protection and management of fisheries resources, structural policy, common market organization for fishery and aquaculture products and external relations. The last 2002 reform of common fisheries policy introduced the more long-term approach to fisheries management. Besides there are new rules of financial support for the fisheries. The Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance was replaced by European Fisheries Fund, which will run from 2007 to 2013. In 2008, the Commission launched a new review of the common fisheries policy. It is going to be completed in 2013.

Kisiel-Łowczyc Anna Barbara, Miejsce Polski w strategii UE dla Regionu Morza Bałtyckiego (RMB)
Poland in the EU Strategy for the BSR

The main goal of the paper is evaluation of the EU Policy oriented to BSR since with 90's till EU's Strategy for BSR (y. 2009) The special focus is on interactions between existing Baltic organizations and EU BSR programmes, co-financed by EU funds to make their use more efficient , more competitive BSR and cleaner Baltic Sea. Poland, as the EU member state, should play, at least, relevant role in imple-mentation of the Strategy , esp. in the time of Polish Presidency. Are we ready for this challenge?

Śledziewska Katarzyna, Formy regulowania liberalizacji handlu UE z krajami WTO
Forms of trade liberalization between EU the WTO countries

The paper examines the development of common commercial policy (CCP) of the European Union and its place in the processes of regionalization. The European Union is the most active participant in the process of regionalism in the world. More over, now these agreements are directly related to the Polish economy. After the ac-cession, Poland no longer maintains its own, independent trade policy. The aim of this study is to present the agreements signed by EU and also motives for regional-ism. The most important reasons why EU is becoming involved in more and more PTAs are presented.

Dugiel Wanda, The US in the Doha Round: Support for multilateral trade liberalization or protectionism
USA w ramach rundy Doha: wsparcie dla wielostronnej liberalizacji handlu czy protekcjonizm?

Stany Zjednoczone są nadal niekwestionowanym hegemonem we współczesnym świecie. I nie istnieje duże prawdopodobieństwo, aby miejsce USA zastąpiły inne kraje. Z historii amerykańskiej polityki handlowej wynika, iż zbyt wysoki kurs dolara oraz ogromny i rosnący deficyt handlowy należą do symptomów nadciągającego protekcjonizmu w USA. Poza tym ryzyko protekcjonizmu w okresie kryzysu gospo¬darczego jest znacznie większe niż w okresie dobrej koniunktury gospodarczej. W 2009 r. protekcjonizm nieznacznie wzrósł w wielu krajach. Stany Zjednoczone będą chciały zachować pozycję lidera w globalnej liberalizacji handlu w celu zawar¬cia postanowień końcowych Rundy Rozwojowej z Doha. W tym celu USA wykorzys¬tują forum szczytów G8 i G20 do realizacji polityki handlowej.

Kuźniar Andżelika, Negocjacje usługowe w rundzie rozwojowej WTO
Services negotiations in the WTO Development Round

The article deals with the problem of slow and ineffective negotiations on serv¬ices in the current WTO Development Round. The Round gained its name because of its goal to promote economic growth and poverty alleviation through international trade. The tendency of developing countries to liberalize trade in services is at best moderate, although there are many reasons for opening domestic markets for foreign services and service providers. Most studies indicate that liberalization of serv¬ices sectors should deliver the greatest benefits to those countries in which the initial level of barrier is high. In the long run developing countries can therefore gain the most. In the short and medium term, however, these countries must be prepared to pay the costs of adaptation to remove barriers and to revise or introduce new regula-tions. However, there is more and more studies calling into question the size of the benefits that developing countries could gain from trade liberalization envisaged in the Doha Round. The article provides arguments explaining the visible resistance of developing countries to commit themselves to services trade liberalization.

Czarny Elżbieta, Menkes Jerzy, Śledziewska Katarzyna, Znaczenie liberalizacji dyskryminacyjnej w handlu światowym
The role of discriminatory liberalization in world trade

After Uruguay Round of GATT the multilateral trade liberalization has been stopped. Simultaneously trade liberalization is continued in institutional framework of regional preferential trade agreements as a kind of discriminatory trade liberalization. Regional agreements allow namely granting trade preferences to the member countries and discriminating (in form of lacking preferences) countries and interna¬tional governmental organizations out of area. However, more frequent participation in regional agreements makes this type of trade liberalization a workable alternative for multilateral negotiations under auspices of WTO.

We analyze influence of regional agreements on trade within the areas covered by those agreements and in trade of member countries with the rest of the world. We check, whether trade within the regionally integrated areas is crowding out trade with the rest of the world. We supplement this analysis with considerations about global and regional economic cooperation and about genesis and legal base of discriminatory trade liberalization.

Żołądkiewicz Krystyna, EFTA – 50 lat funkcjonowania
50 years of EFTA

This year the 50th anniversary of the Agreement on the European Free Trade Association. The history of EFTA, since its establishment in 1960, is part of the political and economic integration in Western Europe. He membership of EFTA changed as integration in Europe gathered pace and now consists of 4 countries. The members states now known as "The New EFTA" have also updated the original Stockholm Convention by Vaduz Convention. Tariffs on industrial goods traded between the EFTA countries - with few exceptions - were abolished from 1967. Quantitative restrictions were removed by mid-1965. It resulted in growing turnovers in merchandise trade between members. However contribution of the EU countries in EFTA trade as main trading partners is overwhelming (73% of total), and it is - among others - due to the Agreement on the European Economic Area.

Orłowska Renata, Europejski Obszar Gospodarczy – 15 lat funkcjonowania
European Economic Area - 15 years anniversary

In 2009 member states of the EOG celebrated the 15th anniversary of the Agree-ment. Signed on 2 May 1992, the Agreement, which extends the Internal Market of the EU to the EFTA States Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, has been in force since 1 January 1994. Today, the EEA comprises 30 European countries with almost 5000 million people.

Within the EEA the basic principles of the Internal Market apply, namely the free movement of goods, services, capital and persons. IN practice this means that throughout the EEA, economic operators and citizens from the EEA EFTA states en-joy the same rights and have the dame obligations in the areas covered by the Agreement as their counterparts from the EU.

Erdmańska Anna, Członkostwo Chorwacji w UE – aspekt polityczny i gospodarczy
Croatia membership in the European Union - political and economical aspects

The paper aims to prove that Croatia will become the European Union member by the end of 2013. It describes short history of Croatia as an independent country which had direct impact on Croats aspiration to join the EU. The pa¬per describes Croatian economy, main indices and economic relations with other countries. In the last part author analyses the EU attitude towards Croatia and other former Yugoslav republics.

Michałowski Tomasz, Integracja gospodarcza w ramach CARICOM jako przykład procesów integracyjnych w regionie Karaibów
Economic integration within CARICOM as an example of integration processes in the Caribbean Region

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) was established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas which was signed in 1973. Currently it consists of fifteen member states out of which more than half are microstates.

The Treaty of Chaguaramas sought to achieve economic integration of the member states by creating common market with the free movement of goods and serv¬ices, capital, and labor. However, by the end of the 1980s CARICOM had seen mixed progress towards fully operational common market.

In 2001 the heads of governments signed a Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas which established CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). Although the full establishment of the single-market component of the CSME was scheduled for 2008 and consolidation and completion of single economy for 2015, efforts to deepen and strengthen integration processes within CARICOM are still facing many obstacles.

Kosztowniak Aneta, Dysproporcje rozwojowe w krajach funkcjonujących w różnych modelach systemu gospodarczego
Economic disproportions in countries in different models of economic system

The economic disproportions had existing between market economies, planned and mixed economies have been deeping for about thirty years. The study examines economic and income disproportions between advanced economies, emerging and developing economies and countries in transition as well as communism countries.

The analysis comprises the years 1990-2008 and aims at changes of GDP struc-ture of production disproportions in global demand and GNI per capita.

Bass Hans, Trading out of poverty? Challenges and chances of globalization for one of the world’s poorest countries (Mali) and its cotton industry
Handel ubóstwem? Szanse i wyzwania globalizacji dla jednego z najbiedniejszych krajów świata (Mali) i jego przemysłu bawełnianego

W artykule podjęto problem, iż globalizacja sama w sobie niekoniecznie sprawdza się w przypadku najbiedniejszych krajów świata. W przypadku Mali głównym sek¬torem, w którym państwo może integrować się z gospodarką światową jest sektor bawełniany i tekstylny - należy zwrócić uwagę na: niekorzystne działanie międzynarodowych sił rynkowych na rynku surowców, błędnego koła ubóstwa skut¬kującego pogorszeniem gleby, stosowanie dotacji i subsydiów w krajach konku¬rujących oraz niezdolność tego kraju do wpływania na własną walutę, negatywnie oddziałują na korzyści ze specjalizacji.

W odniesieniu do przetwórstwa bawełny: międzynarodowy efekt demonstracyjny negatywnie wpływający na lokalny popyt; trendy w kształtowaniu się kursu waluty sprzyjające importowi; zacofanie technologiczne i bariery transportowe, składają się na bariery procesu integracji gospodarki Mali z gospodarką światową w zakresie produkowanych towarów, pomimo występowania potencjalnych korzyści komparatywnych.

W artykule wyrażono pogląd na rzecz umiarkowanej i inteligentnej interwencji państwa w celu przezwyciężenia infrastrukturalnych „wąskich gardeł", promocji lokalnego popytu oraz wykorzystania popytu międzynarodowego we współpracy z sąsiednimi krajami produkującymi, co umożliwi korzystną, „głęboką" integrację zamiast szkodliwej, "płytkiej" integracji z gospodarką światową.

Słok-Wódkowska Magdalena, Zgeneralizowany system preferencji jako mechanizm prowadzenia polityki wobec państw rozwijających się
GSP as a tool of politics towards developing countries

The aim of this paper is to present the effectiveness of Generalized Systems of Preferences, introduced by some developed countries with the aim to promote inter¬national trade and support economic growth in developing ones. The first part is a brief history of the GSP and an analyses of existing systems of preferences. In the second part the legality of GSP from the point of view of the WTO law has been as-sess. There are also enumerated conditions on which countries are able to developed systems of conditional GSP. Such systems - as possibly the most promising tools of politics towards developing states - has been especially described in part three. However as the analyses showed those preferences - as they are at the moment -cannot rather serve as an incentives for promotion of corporate governance and sustainable development despite the fact, that EU would like to use it this way. Also United States GSP is rather a way of protecting internal goods then making wide access to the market for developing states.

Osmund Osinachi Uzor, Industralisation in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects in the era of globalization
Uprzemysłowienie Nigerii: Wyzwania i widoki na przyszłość w erze globalizacji

Nigeria, podobnie do innych państw afrykańskich została zmarginalizowana, jeśli chodzi o udział w globalnej gospodarce, ponieważ krajowe przedsiębiorstwa działają w otoczeniu braków technologicznych, niedostatku wykształconej siły ro¬boczej oraz w niekorzystnym klimacie politycznym, który nie sprzyja podnoszeniu produktywności oraz utrzymaniu konkurencyjności. W rezultacie firmy nigeryjskie nie rozwinęły międzynarodowych powiązań sektorowych i przemysłowych, a także nie podlegają procesowi internacjonalizacji.

Janicka Małgorzata, Nierównowaga globalna w perspektywie historycznej i współczesnej
The Global Imbalance - in the past and nowadays

Imbalance, that means deficits and surpluses in the current accounts of the countries' balances of payments, is an immanent feature of the open economies. In consequence the well functioning adjustment mechanism is required in order to maintain the stability of the global economy. The aim of such a mechanism is to cor¬rect the existing imbalances smoothly and quickly. For the time being the fear is arising because of the imbalance upward trend taking place between the most important countries of the global economy: the USA and Asian countries (specially China). Un-fortunately the adjustment mechanism in the present international monetary system does not work well. The main aim of the paper is to answer the question what the reasons of such a situation are.

Mesjasz Lidia, Wpływ globalnego kryzysu gospodarczego na kraje rozwijające się
The global economic crisis and its impact on developing countries

The global economic crisis is expected to have a strong negative effect on low-income countries (LICs) through exports, FDI, remittances, and possibly aid flows. The adverse impact on economic activity and government revenues is expected to lead to increased budgetary and external financing gaps in many countries. Additional borrowing to offset the shortfalls in external financing will lead to deterioration of debt burden indicators in all LICs and some of them may breach the debt sustainability thresholds.

The paper is structured as follows. Section II discusses the various channels through which the global economic crisis effects the flow of funds to LICs. Section III provides an overview of the achievements of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative and analyses the debt sustainability implications of the crisis. LICs' potential additional financing needs are assessed in Section IV with a review of ways in which international financial institutions can help to satisfy them. Section V concludes that grants not loans are needed to withstand the threat of possible debt crisis in LICs.

Bogołębska Joanna, Konsekwencje akumulacji rezerw walutowych dla gospodarki światowej
The accumulation of foreign reserves and its implications for the stability of the global economy

The article focuses on the process of the accumulation of foreign reserves. The author tries to indicate that, in the long run, the phenomena of large reserve hoardings is detrimental, both to the separate country and the global economy. The possible solution may come from multilateral attempts to correct global imbalances and lowering the demand for reserves. The latter needs to be coordinated on the multinational level, possibly with the engagement of the IMF.

Goczek Łukasz, Dług, wzrost gospodarczy i kryzys finansowy
Debt, growth, and the financial crisis

The article presents a brief review of the literature on the impact of the variables used in the analysis of economic growth with an emphasis devoted to the role of debt in economic growth. Then, an empirical study was conducted in the tradition of "growth factors" to illustrate the existing relationship between foreign debt and economic growth. This approach is based on regressing the rate of growth of production on a broad set of explanatory variables relating to the object of interest and a set of control variables. Using this method, it is possible to indicate that countries with higher levels of debt show a lower rate of economic growth. The article continues on, to present conclusions in accordance with the results of empirical research in the context of increasing debt in developed countries in the aftermath of the financial crisis 2007-2009.

Najlepszy Eugeniusz, Finansowanie deficytu płatniczego gospodarki wschodzącej a działania regulacyjne
Financing of payments deficit in emerging economy and regulatory activities

The aim of the study is a modeled analysis of international capital flows context of potential threats resulting from the reversal in the capital account of the balance payment. We point out that in the number of emerging economies the increasing cross border financing contributes to generating more higher payment deficits and financial instability and also leads to worsening the international investment position. As the virulence of the markets are more much intensive and reversal in the capital account are extremely rapid, there is a need to regulate international capital flows. We argue that there is an important role for rather rule-making activities of regulatory institutions which should promote the drafting standards of "good practices" for market participants. These are not direct regulations imposed under instru¬ments of "hard low". We suggest rather means of "soft laws", namely a set of recommendations informal orders and instructions, whose adaption is at the discretion of the parties concerned. It should be stressed also that "soft" regulating of interna¬tional payment flows can not be sufficient condition for contracting persistent deficits on the current account of emerging economies.

Klecha-Tylec Karolina, Perspektywy utworzenia wschodnioazjatyckiej unii monetarnej
Prospects of establishment of an East Asian monetary union

Regional cooperation in East Asia has been growing in importance over the last decade, especially after the Asian financial crises, which took place in 1997. Since then increasing number of initiatives both in economic as well as in financial areas can be observed. One of the direction of carried discussions among East Asian politi-cians and economists is to establish a common currency unit and, as a result, a re-gional monetary union.

The aim of the article is to present different ideas of founding monetary union in the East Asian region in the light of the optimal currency areas theory.

Ehrig Detlew, Staroske Uwe, Japan, Eastern Europe and global finance
Japonia, Europa Wschodnia i globalny system finansowy

Japonia oraz Europa Wschodnia stały się ofiarami destrukcyjnych sił globalnego systemu finansowego. Europa Wschodnia, która w ostatnich latach stała się wielką nadzieją gospodarczą - „rynkiem wchodzącym", mocno związała się z zagranicznymi kredytodawcami, praktycznie zapraszając ich do finansowania tego szybkiego wzrostu gospodarczego. Z drugiej strony Japonia była w grupie krajów finan¬sujących ten wzrost. Operacje carry trade, jak cudowne magiczne zaklęcie, związały ze sobą rozwój tych regionów. Dla Europy Wschodniej wyzwania idące za załamaniem się światowego systemu finansowego są zupełnie nowe, natomiast dla Japonii są one kontynuacją problemów nękających gospodarkę od lat dziewięćdzie¬siątych, takich jak chroniczna deflacja.

Operacje carry trade były w dużym stopniu odpowiedzialne za wahania jena (JPY) oraz walut Europy Wschodniej. Japonia jako kraj silny ekonomicznie stoi i stał, wśród innych aspirujących państw, nowych członków Wspólnoty Europejskiej, w sercu globalnego kryzysu finansowego. Operacje carry trade w sposób trwały zaszkodziły Japonii i Europie Wschodniej. Kraje te stały się więc widocznymi przykładami skutków systematyc¬znego, nadmiernego napływu kapitału poszukującego zyskownych możliwości in¬westycyjnych.

Na pytanie, czy globalna gospodarka wyjdzie z obecnego kryzysu przy pomocy rozwiązań polityki keynesowskiej, nadal nie można odpowiedzieć satysfakcjonująco.

Japonia i Europa Wschodnia są bliskie wpadnięcia w fazę deflacji. Pierwsze na liście sposoby jej zwalczania, pochodzące z prawdziwej keynesowskiej tradycji, to są rozwiązania makroekonomiczne: ekspansywna polityka fiskalna, która prowadzi do wypierania inwestycji prywatnych oraz polityka monetarna, która umożliwia utrzy¬manie wartości aktywów i stwarza zachęty do inwestowania.

Oprócz odpowiedniej polityki fiskalnej i monetarnej pozostają jeszcze dwa środki w walce z deflacją: reforma systemu finansowego i wprowadzenie systemu kierowanych kursów zmiennych. System kierowanych kursów zmiennych łączy w sobie dwie zalety: autonomię polityki zmian stóp procentowych oraz kursy walutowe, na które ma wpływ polityka rządu.

Rolą banku centralnego jest regulowanie kursu walutowego zgodnie z różnicami stóp procentowych w różnych krajach. Taka polityka kursów walutowych pomogłaby w minimalizowaniu wpływu różnic stóp procentowych na kurs waluty, w idealnym przypadku całkowicie by go wyeliminowała.

Pfannkuche Alexander, The tigers in crisis. New perspectives on financial fragility in the Baltic States
Tygrysy w kryzysie Nowe perspektywy niestabilności finansowej w krajach bałtyckich

Badanie skutków światowego kryzysu finansowego w krajach bałtyckich pokazało, że perturbacje w systemie ekonomicznym wynikały ze złego systemu fi¬nansowego, lub przynajmniej system finansowy przyczynił się do ich pogorszenia. System finansowy krajów bałtyckich jest bardzo podatny na zewnętrzne szoki. Poziom zadłużenia gospodarstw domowych oraz przedsiębiorstw doprowadził do niebezpiecznego wzrostu zadłużenia.

Jak wynika z „Hipotez niestabilności finansowej", system finansowy krajów bałtyckich stał się piramidą finansową, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do gospodarek Łotwy i Estonii. Strategia zrównoważonego wzrostu musi brać pod uwagę więcej in¬strumentów niż tylko przyciąganie bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych i wzrost oparty na popycie krajowym uzyskanym dzięki wzrostowi zadłużenia, zwłaszcza jeśli system finansowy jest głównie w posiadaniu kapitału zagranicznego.

W takim razie jakie strategie mogły być rekomendowane jako rozsądne? W celu uniknięcia kryzysu walutowego oraz przeciwdziałaniu krótkoterminowym fluk¬tuacjom kursów walut, kraje bałtyckie przywiązały swoje waluty do euro i w ciągu najbliższych lat przystąpią do unii walutowej. W związku z tym, polityka monetarna nie powinna wzbudzać sprzeciwu teraz, ani też w przyszłości. Z tego względu rozwiązania należy upatrywać w polityce fiskalnej. Tym niemniej, restrykcje fiskalne wynikające z „Paktu stabilności i wzrostu", które muszą być przestrzegane na drodze wejścia do strefy euro, nie dają jednocześnie żadnego pola manewru do wykorzysta¬nia fiskalnych instrumentów stymulujących gospodarkę. W rzeczywistości rządy państw bałtyckich kreują ogromne deficyty budżetowe. Rząd łotewski musiał zaak-ceptować oficjalną pomoc Międzynarodowego Funduszu Walutowego aby zażegnać groźbę bankructwa państwa. Z powyższych powodów duże przedsięwzięcia makroe¬konomiczne nie będą możliwe przez kilka następnych lat. W zastępstwie potrzebna jest nowa strategia rozwoju, skoncentrowana na długoterminowym wzroście potencjału i dywersyfikacji produkcji. Prawdą jest, iż celu tego nie da się osiągnąć w ciągu następnych kilku lat, lecz mimo to powinien on być brany pod uwagę.

Misiak Małgorzata, Budżet Unii Europejskiej a stabilizacja
EU budget and stabilisation

In the debate on the EU public finances, three separate issues are raised. The first one is EU budget. The second one is the question of national fiscal policies in the light of the provisions of Maastricht Treaty and the Stability and Growth Pact. The third one is the problem of the role and place of the fiscal policy for the well-functioning of the European Monetary Union. The author argues that these three topics are closely interrelated. Taking into account the synergies among them per-mits to conceive a coherent and effective budgetary system for the European Union.

Junevicius Algis, Justinaviciene Kristina, Taxation in the EU: tendencies and perspectives
Podatki w unii Europejskiej: tendencje i perspektywy

Artykuł omawia problem interakcji między polityką podatkową oraz kryzysem fi¬nansowym. W szczególności zajmuje się on istniejącymi dowodami na połączenia między podatkami oraz wieloma cechami charakterystycznymi kryzysu. Omawia on także możliwe zmiany w systemie podatkowym, mogące zapobiec podobnym kryzy¬som.

Podejmowanie decyzji dotyczących podatków w Unii Europejskiej wciąż wy¬maga jednomyślności, co czyni proces harmonizacji systemów podatkowych trudnym i nieefektywnym. Dotychczasowe największe osiągnięcia w ujednoliceniu sfery podatkowej w UE nastąpiły w zakresie podatku VAT. Określone zostały stawki minimalne, lecz nie stawki maksymalne. W rezultacie stawki VAT w krajach UE są zróżnicowane. Ponadto, podstawy naliczania podatku VAT różnią się z powodu odstępstw i wyjątków. Mniejszy postęp został osiągnięty w zakresie ujednolicenia po¬datków akcyzowych. Harmonizacja na tym polu była bardzo powolna i częstokroć przeprowadzana spontanicznie. Państwa UE zareagowały na kryzys dużymi zmianami w polityce gospodarczej. W szczególności, wiele krajów wprowadziło zmi¬any w przepisach podatkowych, jako część fiskalnych pakietów stymulujących. Nie wprowadzono jednakże zmian w systemach podatkowych.

Szmelter Monika, Internacjonalizacja światowego rynku walutowego
Internationalization of global foreign exchange market

Foreign exchange market is international market. The level of cross-border transactions is high and has continuously grown. In April 2007 total cross-border turnover had the level of 2099 millions of US dollars. Transactions with foreign investors made 62 % of total foreign exchange turnover so over half of foreign exchange market is international. Market-makers transactions were the main reason of this fx market structure but their influence was smaller over and over because of the tendency to deconcentration of fx market. FZ swap was the most international transaction – in April 2007 transactions with foreign investors made 71,6% of total fx swap turnover. In case of other fx transactions this indicator was also high. Outright forward transactions were only more local instruments but the part of international operation on outright-forward market has continuously grown.

Gruszczyński Marcin, Efektywność rynku walutowego w kontekście światowego kryzysu finansowego w Polsce, Czechach i na Węgrzech
Foreign exchange market efficiency in the context of global financial crisis in Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary

The aim of this paper is to verify the hypothesis if there happened any changes in FX markets efficiency in Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic after the financial and currency crises. Verification of weak-form hypothesis suggests that crisis improved efficiency in Hungary and in the Czech Republic but not in Poland. Secondly, index of market pressure (based on Eichengreen, Rose, Wyplosz) shows that the effects of the crisis were also the most substantial in Poland.

Gostomski Eugeniusz, Kierunki rozwoju bankowości na świecie w dobie pokryzysowej
The trends in world banking development after the flnancial crisis

The global financial crisis will have a lasting impact on banks. US banks and European banks have had to cope with combined writedowns of more than USD 1,3 tr. Consequently, the market value of banks have fallen. In response to the crisis, governments are seeking new rules that make future financial system more resilient. Banks will be required to hold larger capital buffers. Standardised products will gain and securitisation will become less attractive. The probability of domestic consolidation has increased, while that of cross - border M&A has declined.

After the crisis banking sector will become a less „fashionable" and more heavily regulated industry with greater state involvement. This will lead to lower growth, lower profits and lower volatility for banks than during the past few decades.

Dąbrowska-Gruszczyńska Katarzyna, Stan rozwoju sektora bankowego w Polsce na tle państw OECD w okresie 1991–2008
State of development of banking sector in Poland in 1991-2008 in comparison to OECD countries

The aim of this paper is to briefly analyze the place and the level of development of Polish banking system in comparison to other OECD countries. Well developed banking system should fulfill the following objectives: mobilization of savings, allocation of spare funds, collecting, processing, distributing important information, risk management, quality and investment projects controlling. The author created a synthetic index BANK that shows the state of development of a banking system in 1991-2008, dividing the whole period in three parts: starting transformation (1991— 1998), pre-EU-accession (1999—2003) and just after the EU-accession (2004—2008). In all periods Polish banking system was well behind (the last place) OECD countries.

Nakonieczna-Kisiel Halina, Kryzys finansowy a stan i struktura polskiego zadłużenia zagranicznego
Financial crisis versus the amount and structure of Poland's foreign debt

It has been a year since the outbreak of the financial crisis in Poland. The aim of the paper was to analyse the impact of the crisis on the total amount and structure of the country's foreign debt over this period. First, the direction of this impact on the Polish economy was presented. Next, the author analysed the changes observed between September 2008 and September 2009 in the amount and dynamics of debt as well as its structure by sector and financial instruments. In conclusion, an attempt was made to evaluate how the financial crisis had contributed to those changes.

Mucha-Leszko Bogumiła, Kąkol Magdalena, Euro – waluta regionalna czy globalna?
The euro - regional or global currency?

The subject of this study is an analysis and an appraisal of applying the euro in the world currency's functions in private and official spheres. It turns out from the analysis that a degree of the euro internationalisation is much more lower than that of dollar. That regards all the areas of international economic relations: trade, money and capital markets, currency market as well as the euro share in the central banks' portfolios of foreign currency reserves. In the conclusion the authors state that the euro has gained a position of the main currency in Europe, but on the global economy's scale the dollar prevails.

Bilski Janusz, Korelacje kursów EUR, USD, PLN w perspektywie udziału złotego w ERM II
Correlations of the EUR, USD and PLN exchange rates in the prospects of the Polish zloty introduction into the ERM II

The main aim of the article is to analyse the correlation between the EUR/USD exchange rate and the USD/PLN, EUR/PLN exchange rates. In the article the rea-sons of the strong correlation between the Polish zloty and the US dollar, and the consequences of such a situation for the functioning of the Polish zloty in the ERM II, are examined.

Michalczyk Wawrzyniec, Analiza i interpretacja głównych działań polskich władz na rzecz przyszłego wprowadzenia euro
An analysis and interpretation of the main activities of the Polish authorities for the future introduction of the euro

Accession to the European Union resulted in the obligation of Poland's participation in the European Monetary Union as well, which culminates in replacement of zloty by the common currency. Polish authorities have been taking - in varying degrees in different periods - many actions aimed at implementing this process. These actions have been mainly informational, strategic, reporting and organizational ones. The aim of the paper is to point to the most important of these actions in chronological order (in division to the around-accession time and to the period after important government declaration in September 2008), to interpret them and to de-fine their role in the Polish road to the euro. For this purpose, a descriptive analysis of official documents and legislation has been made.

Rosińska-Bukowska Magdalena, Oligopolizacja globalnej przestrzeni biznesowej – konsekwencje internacjonalizacji przedsiębiorstw dla systemu gospodarki światowej
Oligopolization of Global Business Space - Consequences of Enterprises Internationalization in World Economy System

The aim of the paper is to prove that ongoing process of internationalization of enterprises seriously affects the place of transnational corporations in the structure of world economy.

The paper is divided into three parts. In the first one the essence of the notion of oligopolization in the context of studied processes is presented. Additionally author comments on stages of business network integration model creation. In the second part transnational corporations' expansion strategies were introduced. They (strategies) are treated as a result of possibilities which are created by global business space. In that section author presented also typology of possible connections, including strategic alliances.

The last part of the paper is an analysis of consequences of internationalization of companies activities and global business network emerging in world economy sys¬tem. Author tries to asses if the spectrum of changes, which considers inner corpora¬tion systems, lead to establishment of new economy subjects which are more than microeconomic structures.

Folfas Paweł, Jak bardzo umiędzynarodowione są korporacje transnarodowe?
How much transnational are TNCs?

The fundamental goal of this paper is to scrutinize the various perspectives and degree of transnationality of transnational corporations (TNCs). TNCs are said to be global players however intensive foreign activity is not always linked with high geo-graphical spread of TNCs operations.

Firstly, there is presented statistical analysis (descriptive statistics, correlation indicators) of UNCTAD's measures of transnationality such as: transnationality index (TNI), internalization index (II), geographic spread index (GSI) and network spread index (NSI).

Secondly, there are implemented own measures of transnationality. These measures focus especially on geographic spread of TNCs activities.

Szuster Mariusz, Internacjonalizacja firm produkcyjnych
Internationalization of manufacturing companies

There are several sources of internationalization. It may be a pressure on cost reduction, closeness to the market or suppliers. Sourcing of materials in interna¬tional context is the complex task. Potential suppliers should be evaluated before starting the cooperation. There are also many logistics problems within a supply chain. One of the solution is the location of purchasing headquarters in a foreign country.

Kamińska Teresa, Internacjonalizacja zachowań przedsiębiorstwa w kontekście innowacyjności
Internalization of enterprises' behaviour under innovativeness context

Poland's access to the EU began a new stage of internalization easily measured by so called creation effect. Significant transformation is being observed in both studied fields, ie. quantitatively and qualitatively. Much higher dynamics is characteristic for outflows of foreign direct investments (FDI) than for inflows keeping in mind, however very low initial level of that phenomenon. Particular and meaningful changes in structure of activity types considering inflowing to our country FDI as well as the Polish direct investments abroad are generally favourable for our economy.

Jankowska Barbara, Klastry i globalizacja – „korelacja” dodatnia czy ujemna?
Clusters and globalization - positive or negative interdependencies?

The overwhelming pressure of globalization seems to depreciate the importance of localization and geographical distance for international competitiveness of firms, industries and economies. Some researchers speak about "the death of distance" watching the pace of ICT development which is a sign of globalization and enables people to communicate more quickly and in a more convenient way. At the same time, some other observers of real business life underline the role of local environ-ment for creating the competitive advantage of companies, which goes in line with theses about the relevance of clusters for competitiveness. The debate goes on. The author of the paper tries to investigate possible interdependencies between clusters and the globalization. The questions are - is the existence of clusters in the era of the globalization a paradox? How does the globalization affect clusters? What is the mechanism of influence? The author investigates the potential interdependencies be-tween clusters and the globalization, notes the mechanism of the influence of the globalization on clusters and presents knowledge spillovers as the result of the above mentioned influence on the basis of literature review.

Bielenia-Grajewska Magdalena, The discursive side of exercising power in global companies
Dyskursywny aspekt sprawowania władzy w firmach globalnych

Celem artykułu jest podkreślenie dyskursywnego aspektu sprawowania władzy we współczesnych firmach globalnych. Autorka stara się wykazać, że język i zarzą¬dzanie są ze sobą ściśle powiązane, zaś dyskurs ma ogromne znaczenie w wykony¬waniu władzy menadżerskiej. Aspekt lingwistyczny zarządzania jest często pomijany zarówno przez praktyków jak i teoretyków zajmujących się zarządzaniem i organi¬zacją. Jak starano się wykazać w tym artykule, to właśnie język jest bardzo efektyw¬nym instrumentem badania jak i utrzymywania relacji związanych z wykonywaniem władzy w otoczeniu korporacyjnym.

Rymarczyk Jan, Ryzyko bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych spowodowane destabilizacją polityczną
Risk of foreign direct investment causes by political destabilization

The largest threat for FDI are wars, revolutions, coups, uprisings, unrests, terrorism and piracy. These days the most dangers places to invest are many countries of Africa, Middle East and some countries of South America. International Corporations, which invest in these countries have to take high risk. If they wont to gain access to their markets, exploit their natural resources and make extra profits they have no other choice. They tray however it to reduce taking such steps like support of local governments, insist on their governments to intervence, employment of guards and insurance of investment at special agencies

Pasierbiak Paweł, Współczesne tendencje w rozwoju zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich Japonii w Chinach
Current Tendencies in Japanese Foreign Direct Investments in China

Author of the article has focused on an analysis of the most relevant tendencies in Japanese FDI development in China since the year 2000. Both, a dynamic growth of investments and their sector and geographical distribution were determined by a set of factors. In the author's opinion, the most important are: economic conjuncture in the world economy, in China and Japan; global tendencies in foreign direct investment, China's access to the World Trade Organization, investment policy of China and fluctuations of bilateral exchange rates between partners. In a conclusion it is stated, that prospects for Japanese investments in China are rather bright as it seems that incentives to investing are stronger than barriers.

Kuśpit Jarosław, Uwarunkowania i perspektywy napływu zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich do Rosji
Determinants and Prospects of Foreign Direct Investments Inflows to Russia

The world economy in recent years is characterized by a high growth of foreign direct investments. Within the years 2004-2008 there were also FDI inflows into Russian economy. The Russian authorities declare their will to create favorable investment climate for foreign enterprises in order to increase the role of foreign capital in improvement of the innovation environment of the economy. The economic condition of Russia was also considered good by foreign investors. Despite FDI inflows to Russia, their value and structure are not very helpful in achieving goals of the gov¬ernment. A Russian share in global FDI flows remains at the low level of about 1,5%. Quite a big share of FDI located in Russia comes from a Russian capital which had been transferred abroad earlier. A sector breakdown of foreign investments in Russia does not contribute to a modernization of the economy. Foreign investments are di-rected into branches characterized by high rate of return on equity (fuels extracting and trade). In order to increase a role of foreign direct investments in the Russian economy there is a need to perform some activities. These are: broadening of an economy openness, intensive activities to improve an investment climate and lower-ing a risk level.

Cieślik Andrzej, Michałek Jan J., Mycielski Jerzy, Pugacewicz Agnieszka, Nierówności społeczne a handel międzynarodowy. Sytuacja krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej po transformacji
Social Inequalities and International Trade. Situation in Central and Eastern European Countries after Transformation

Central and East European countries (CEECs) have experienced political and economic transformation. In the early years of this change, an increase in the scope of civil rights was accompanied by a temporary reduction in the level of social development and a substantial increase in income inequality. This raises a question whether these changes have affected the level of international trade of CEECs. In our paper we study the role of social inequalities in development of international trade using generalised gravity model. We use both aggregate indicators of social development such as HDI, the Gini index, and the particular components of the GEM index, reflecting discrimination based on gender. Our results suggest that social inequalities can also affect international trade flows.

Simpson Dorota, Strategie zróżnicowania personelu w świetle polityki UE przeciwdziałania dyskryminacji w miejscu pracy
Personnel diversity strategies in the framework of European Union anti-discrimination policy in the workplace

However, implementation diversity strategy, results from legal or ethical reasons, usually brings economic advantages. It is proved by the results both literature and empirical research. In the European countries personnel diversity in the workplace is regulated by Directives 2000/43/EU and 2000/78/EU. Many societies of European Union are culturally diversified, because of ethnic minorities immigration process. Additionally they are ageing societies and employers have to look for any sources of workforce and have to break stereotypes. That is why both directives are accepted by companies operating in European Union countries.

Osiecka Katarzyna, Międzynarodowe migracje specjalistów
International migrations of specialists

With every year, migrations of specialists are becoming an important factor of international flow of human capital. Unfortunately, not all countries can provide proper living and working conditions for their specialists. This is the reason why many highly educated people decide to emigrate to better developed countries, where investition on human and economic development are higher. The effect of specialist outflow is called „brain drain". This effect brings great losses to developing countries, as they spent money on education of people, who will never bring profits to these countries. On the other hand, countries of immigration gain profits from those migrations with no costs at all.

In the globalized world, transnational corporations play an important role in migrations. What is interesting, in inner - corporation migrations specialists are usually sent to developing countries to take care of enterprise's activities and investments.

Schroeder Jerzy, Wykorzystanie własnej motywacji ekspatrianta w kształtowaniu jego międzynarodowej kariery
Exploitation of expatriate's motives in developing his/her international career

The increasing international immobility of managerial employees coincides with an increasing demand for expatriates driven by rapid growth of MNCs and their affiliates. To combat such immobility MNCs should try to match a career perspective and incentive profile as close as possible to the employees' motives or need profiles. This requires a good knowledge of the employees' motive structure. Expatriate's motives in taking on an expatriation can effect expatriation success. At the same time it should be emphasized that individuals' motives to work abroad can be modified by employee's attitudes towards expatriation, issue of dual careers and alternative forms of international employee mobility.

Dierking Kirstin Charlotte, Hofstadler Hannes, Today’s expatriate women managers in a global business environment: Reflections
Obecne miejsce kobiet ekspatriantek na stanowiskach menedżerskich w globalnym środowisku biznesowym: refleksje

Według światowych badań przeprowadzonych przez Brookfield, 20% emigrantów w 2009 roku stanowiły kobiety i obecnie kobiety obejmują 24 % wyższych stanowisk kierowniczych. Fakt, że te wskaźniki procentowe stale rosły w ciągu ostatnich dziesięcioleci pokazuje, że znaczenie tego zagadnienia wzrasta i stanowi przesłankę do podjęcia tego tematu w niniejszym artykule.

Celem artykuły jest dokonanie przeglądu zagadnień dotyczących kobiet jako światowych liderów i kobiet jako ekspatriantek oraz ustalenie związku pomiędzy tymi dwoma pojęciami. Niniejsza praca ma na celu analizę dostępnej literatury, na podstawie, czego mogą być prowadzone badania empiryczne Artykuł opiera się na analizie zagadnień teoretycznych i badań empirycznych, które dotyczą kobiet pracujących za granic ą oraz kobietach będących światowymi liderami/menedżerami wyższego szczebla. Celem niniejszego opracowania jest stworzenie przeglądu istniejących dogmatów i faktów dotyczących tego zagadnienia. W artykule analizie poddano związek pomiędzy niedoborem kobiet na globalnych stanowiskach kierowniczych i kobiet pracujących za granicą, a także podkreśla możliwe korzyści z obsadzenia stanowisk kierowniczych kobietami. Kluczową wartością pracy, jest dokonana ocena bieżącej sytuacji kobiet związanej zarówno z pracą kobiety na emigracji, jak i piastowaniem przez nie stanowisk kierowniczych, a atak ze dyskusja na temat możliwych korzyści, które mogą być osiągnięte dzięki kobietom na stanowiskach kierowniczych. Celem artykułu nie jest promocja kobiet. Jednakże ze względu na rosnącą liczbę kobiet ekspatriantem, niniejszy artykuł może stanowić wkład do istniejącej literatury oraz może być punktem wyjścia dla prowadzenia dalszych badań empirycznych.

Bałandynowicz-Panfil Katarzyna, Starzenie się społeczeństw jako determinanta kształtowania współczesnych procesów migracyjnych
The ageing of a society as a determinant of the contemporary population migration processes

Ageing population is one of the most important contemporary demographic changes taking place on the basis of societies around the world. Consequently, reori-entation of migration processes are changing, both as to the direction and intensity of population movements.

Rarely, however, the research has been carried out yet more in-depth analysis on the process of ageing and its consequences for the transformation of the conditions for the functioning of labour markets and in particular order - increased or reduced attractiveness of the market for potential migrants.

The aim of this paper is to present the main areas of population changes and to investigate their sources connected with the ageing society process. The main thesis is that the significant impact of the evolution of the age structure of populations re-lates to migration processes.

Kłos Monika, Rola kapitału ludzkiego w outsourcingu
Role of Human Resources in outsourcing

Modern enterprises run in conditions of unpredictable environmental changes and these activities demand on total management system, including human re¬sources management. Launching of outsourcing connects with significant changes, concerning employees. In report, author tries to answer on two theses: 1) source of defiance in consideration of changes (also outsourcing) is not only the aspect of technical difficulties, but first of all this is an aspect of social difficulties; 2) to successful manage in human resources field, proper strategy of changes must be done.

Baran Małgorzata, Rola kapitału ludzkiego w klastrach przedsiębiorstw
The role of human capital in clusters

Clusters are defined as a concentration of companies that prosper on the basis of their interaction and cooperation. The main purpose of this study is to discuss the impact of human capital in clusters. This paper examines the extent of informal contacts between employees in firms and local university researchers and other institutions in a cluster.

Colleagues and partners provide each other with advice, they share their experience, they give solutions to problems, provided emerging the goodwill trust between firms in cluster. The informal contacts indeed are an important source of knowledge in clusters. Universities are often found to be an important part in clusters and the researchers are seen as a source of knowledge.

Pabedinskaite Arnoldina, Vitkauskas Romualdas, Knowledge management in enterprise quality management
Zarządzenie wiedzą a zarządzanie jakością w firmie

Celem artykułu jest zbadanie specyfiki integracji zarządzania wiedzą i zarządza¬nia jakością. We współczesnym biznesie rośnie zainteresowanie zarządzaniem wiedzą. Wielu teoretyków zarządzania wiedzą utrzymuje, że jakość każdego pro¬duktu czy usługi w znacznym stopniu zależy od wiedzy. Ludzie (pracownicy), procesy i technologia są głównymi elementami zarządzania wiedzą, której mody¬fikacje i zmiany pomagają w osiąganiu najważniejszego celu zarządzania jakością -ciągłej poprawy. Dzięki wykorzystaniu środków zarządzania wiedzą, menadżerowie najwyższego szczebla zwiększają jakość swoich produktów i usług. Większość instru¬mentów zarządzania jakością stanowi atrybuty eksternalizacji i kombinacji poziomów zarządzania wiedzą, gdzie wiedza zwiększa zarówno zawartość, jak i formę. Wyniki badań przedstawicieli litewskich przedsiębiorstw pokazują, że przedsiębiorstwa te wystarczająco dobrze dokonują oszacowań skuteczności stosowanych modeli zarządzania jakością. Najbardziej popularnymi instrumentami zarządzania wiedzą wykorzystywanymi w przedsiębiorstwach są: Karta Kontrolna Procesu (70,6%); Arkusz kontrolny (52,9%); Rodzaje błędów i analiza przyczyn (FMEA) (41,2%); Wyk¬res przyczynowo-skutkowy i metoda burzy mózgów (23,5%).

Dorożyński Tomasz, Kapitał ludzki a rozwój regionów w kontekście wspólnotowej polityki spójności
Regional Development in the Context of EU Cohesion Policy

The article is about relations between human capital, economic growth, regional development and EU cohesion policy. The European Union is one of the most prosperous economic areas in the world, but disparities are significant. The main goal of the EU cohesion policy is to reduce economic, social and territorial inequalities within the EU. Now we should start a discusion about the new programming period 2014-2020 and the EU structural funds budget, especially about the human capital programmes. The aim of this article is to evaluate the role of human capital in regional development in the light of the EU cohesion policy.

Bieliński Tomasz, Zasoby kapitału intelektualnego jako czynnik konkurencyjności Chin
Intellectual capital as a competitive factor of China

Intellectual capital is one of the most important competitive factors of a country.

Although Chinese labor force supply is the biggest in the world, some analysis show its severe problems with a lack of well educated human recourses. Nevertheless, changes in Chinese policy toward building valuable human capital are going to change this situation in favor the country's economy. Higher government spending on education, and massive student enrolment will provide necessary human re-courses for the fast-growing economy. However, multinational companies which are operating and investing in China right now, may face a problem of a lack of high skilled workers, especially experienced managers and executives.

Article analyses strengths and weakness of Chinese educational system and its impact on high skilled labor supply. It also presents future possibilities of Chinese intellectual capital as a competitive factor of that country.

Siemon Cord, Catching up, forging ahead or falling behind? - international trade, techno economic paradigms and academic entrepreneurship
Gonimy, przeganiamy, czy pozostajemy z tyłu? - Handel międzynarodowy, paradygmaty techniczno-ekonomiczne i przedsiębiorczość akademicka

Interesującym jest, iż teoria rozwoju gospodarczego i teoria handlu zagranic¬znego, są często omawiane oddzielnie. Z naszego punktu widzenia, koniecznością jest łączenie filarów ekonomicznego wzrostu Schumpetera (innowacje i finanse) z logiką względnej przewagi (w rozumieniu Ricardo), dlatego że z perspektywy Shumpeterowskiej rola dynamiki względnej przewagi odpowiada za przeważającą część zmian w handlu międzynarodowym. Według Schumpetera oraz Kondratiewa, społeczeństwa państw uprzemysłowionych rozwinęły się poprzez długoterminowe cykle koniunkturalne - „paradygmat techno-ekonomiczny" w terminologii Freemana i Perez - do systemu, w którym informacja otrzymuje status dobra publicznego. Jed¬nakże, z ewolucyjnego punktu widzenia rola wiedzy musi się zmienić, ponieważ duża część kapitału wiedzy, który stworzyli naukowcy oraz przedsiębiorcy nie jest wykorzystywana. W kategoriach ekonomicznych nazywa się ją „wiedzą martwą". W związku z tym kreatywność i praca poświęcona na zdobywanie tej wiedzy jest marnowana. Głównym problemem istotnym dla naszej dyskusji jest więc tak zwana luka między wiedzą a działaniem (knowing-doing-gap). W konsekwencji umiejęt¬ności przedsiębiorcze „doprowadzania roboty do końca" (Schumpeter) stają się rzad¬kimi umiejętnościami, których potrzebujemy aby tworzyć i zarządzać wiedzą akade¬micką w tym burzliwym, szóstym cyklu Kondratiewa.

Spotykając się z nadchodzącym paradygmatem techniczno-ekonomicznym, poli¬tyka wobec handlu międzynarodowego powinna być zintegrowana z polityką roz¬woju gospodarczego Schumpetera, aby odpowiedzieć na kwestię podniesioną przez Mosesa Abramowicza: Gonimy, przeganiamy, czy pozostajemy z tyłu?

Monnich Ernst, Public Investment via PPP – Chance or Risk?
Inwestycje publiczne realizowane poprzez partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne - szansa czy zagrożenie?

Przedmiotem analizy w niniejszym opracowaniu jest pytanie, czy publiczne in¬westycje poprzez PPP oferują więcej szans czy zagrożeń. Odpowiedź - bazując na długoter¬minowych analizach procesów prywatyzacji agencji utylizacji odpadów i oczyszczalni ścieków - pokazuje nieprzewidywalne skutki, duże ryzyko i brak lepszych warunków inwestowania. Skutki bardzo skomplikowanej struktury i procesów związanych z PPP są analizo¬wane z pięciu punktów widzenia: (1) z perspektywy procesu, (2) z perspektywy firmy prywatnej, (3) z perspektywy obywateli, (4) z perspektywy pracowników oraz (5) z perspektywy zarządzania w sektorze publicznym w płaszczyźnie finansowej, prawnej oraz zarządczej. Mniej lub bardziej problematyczne rezultaty jednego przy¬padku niekoniecznie przesądzają o podejściu do PPP. Niekiedy współpraca publicz¬nych agencji utylizacji odpadów z prywatnymi partnerami daje dobre rezultaty dla wypełniania zadań agencji. Taka współpraca miała miejsce w małych samorządach przez dziesiątki lat. Prywatyzacja i PPP jako recepta na problemy budżetowe to inny przypadek. Jego konsekwencją jest przekazywanie głównych części zadań admini¬stracji publicznej. Infrastruktura publiczna wielkiej wartości jest przekazywana -szczególnie w sektorze oczyszczania ścieków - prywatnym korporacjom między¬narodowym: prywatny biznes rozwija się bez konkurencji oraz z gwarantowanymi zyskami. Dzięki prywatyzacji budżet otrzymuje finansowanie na jeden rok lub do czasu następnych wyborów. Nie jest przeprowadzana poważna ocena przedsięwzię¬cia. Cały ciężar spada na obywateli oraz pracowników. Rezultaty tych badań skłaniają do dalszych obserwacji i zmian w procesie podejmowania decyzji o PPP.

Dudziński Jerzy, Finansyzacja międzynarodowych rynków surowcowych i żywności a ich ceny w handlu międzynarodowym
Financialization in international commodity markets in the light of commodity prices in international trade

In the paper, the impact of financialization (understood as the dominance of the financial sector in the economy) on primary commodity prices in the in¬ternational trade was discussed. Following a brief analysis of the concept, its forms and features characteristic of the commodity market were explored.

Next, it was analysed how the financialisation affected the prices and contributed to price movements in international commodity markets and hence in the entire international trade. In conclusion, it was pointed out in particular that the financialisation of markets distorted the informative role of commod¬ity prices - they could no longer be considered the best indicators of the world market tendencies (i.e. the world prices).

Wojtkowska-Łodej Grażyna, Energia w gospodarce globalnej
Energy in the Global Economy

Energy is a significant factor for modern economy development. Alongside with tendencies such as: energy demand increase, its carriers price increase, demographic changes, pollution emission growth, technology progress, dynamically developing economies of Asian emerging countries, it is a relevant is-sue whether in the face of those phenomenons, the known energy resources and their allocation are sufficient for harmonious global economy development.

This paper undertakes an attempt to answer the question of what changes are observed in world energy market and what challenges are related to them. In particular, tendencies in energy carriers demand and possibilities of its fulfilling are analyzed. An asymmetric relation between small number of countries exporting energy carriers and numerous countries importing them is pointed out, what may result in close future with growing dependency of global economy, developed countries from few countries exporting mainly crude oil and natural gas.

Bednarz Joanna, Metodologia badań konkurencyjności gospodarek narodowych – rankingi konkurencyjności
Methodology of national competitiveness' researches - rankings of countries' competitiveness

"Competitiveness of nations is a field of economic theory, which analyses the facts and policies that shape the ability of a nation to create and maintain an environment that sustains more value creation for its enterprises and more prosperity for its people"(S. Garelli, Institute for Management Development).

At the national level competitiveness means citizens' ability to achieve a high and constantly rising standard of living. It can be sustained only by the continuous improvement of productivity. A nation's standard of living is increasingly dependent on the competitiveness of its companies. There are several approaches to measuring national competitiveness. They can combine a large number of elements. This paper analysis the differences in method¬ology of chosen rankings as well as the consequences of their conclusions. The author also tries to recommend how to interpret these rankings objectively.

Białowąs Tomasz, Rola zagranicznych inwestycji bezpośrednich we wzroście konkurencyjności eksportu Polski
The role of foreign direct investment in improving Poland's export competitiveness

This paper analyses the importance of the foreign direct investment in the growth of Poland's exports competitiveness. The results show that since 1989 to 2004 FDI has been positively associated with increase of exports value, and its export-promoting effects has been much greater than that of domestic capital. However in the years 2005-2008 importance of domestic firms in foreign trade development has been found to be predominant.

Kuźmińska-Haberla Aleksandra, Rola agencji promocji inwestycji w przyciąganiu bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych
The role of investment promotion agencies in attracting foreign direct investment

Flows of foreign direct investment (FDI) are an essential element of the global economy. The importance of FDI for economic development increases attention for attraction of investments and establishment of the investment promotion programs. Those programs are usually conducted by investment promotion agencies (IPA).

The purpose of this article is to define the role of investment promotion agencies in attracting FDI. Their role will be examined from two perspectives: first - characterization of the organization of investment promotion agencies, which largely affects the role played by the IPAs, and secondly - characteristics of the functions per-formed by the IPAs.

Kuna-Marszałek Anetta, Eko-znakowanie jako przykład strategii marketingowych przedsiębiorstw
Eco-labelling as an example of marketing strategy in enterprises

In the global economy enterprises and consumers face the necessity of approaching the environmental protection issues in a responsible way. Producers of environmentally friendly goods have an incentive to use environmental marketing techniques such as eco-labelling to differentiate their products. Firms may be motivated by gaining extra market share or improving their public image. Eco-labels are in-tended to promote environmentally superior goods and offer information on quality and performance with respect to consumer health, resource consumption, recycling an so on. As a result they encourage consumers to buy products with a lower environmental impact.

The aim of the article is to show the role of eco-labelling in marketing strategies of enterprises. We start with a definition of eco-labelling, main types of eco-labels and features of ecological certification schemes. Next we try to give answers to some questions, such as: What are benefits to the producer using eco-labels? Have the original objectives of eco-labels been achieved? Are they an effective tool to provide consumers with useful information as to the environmental impacts of products? What are most known eco-labels?

Czech Katarzyna, Realizacja strategii zrównoważonego rozwoju w Polsce na tle Unii Europejskiej – próba oceny na podstawie wybranych wskaźników
Implementation of the strategy for sustainable development in Poland in the background of the European Union - attempt of evaluation on the basis of selected indicators

An important side effect of globalization is a pervasive process of progressive degradation of the natural environment, marginalization of national groups and ethnic minorities and the problem of running out of the energy. Sustainable development seems to be an important approach to counteract the negative consequences of progressing globalization. Significance of the concept seems to be even more important as apart from trying to counteract negative effects on the current generations it also draws attention to the conditions of life for future generations.

The Strategy for Sustainable Development, adopted by the European Union was meant to complement the Lisbon Strategy. The strategic objective of the EU was to become the most competitive, dynamic and knowledge-based economy of the world, able to a sustainable economic development, providing a larger number of good workplaces and greater social cohesion

The paper presents Poland in comparison to the new EU members and the com-munity as a whole, based on basic indicators for monitoring the implementation of the concept of sustainable development.

Lechman Ewa, Olczyk Magdalena, Udział Polski w globalnej wymianie handlowej produktami sektora ICT
Poland's ICT Goods Export and Import and its Share in Global ICT Goods Trade

For a few recent years we can note significant increase in production volume of ICTs goods. On one hand, it is a direct consequence of permanent development of new information and communication technologies. On the other hand, goods produced in manufacture ICTs sector are broadly used and implemented. Looking at a world map, we can distinguish two kinds of countries - when ICTs sector is considered. Most of countries are these which mainly import ICTs goods, and only few countries - mainly high income ones - are these which export ICTs goods.

The main target of the paper is to analyse the volume and structure of polish ex¬port and import of ICTs goods. The authors show Poland's share in global OECD ICTs goods export and import. They also detect main Poland's trade partners.

All data applied for analysis are drawn from OECD database. The statistics refer to the period 2000-2008.

Grottel Monika, Diagnoza polskiego eksportu - wyzwania, bariery i szanse rozwoju
Polish foreign trade - the barriers, challenges, possibilities of development

The paper analyses the aspects of polish export-stimulating trade policy.

The main challenge of export-stimulating policy should to be the creation of possibility to constant and long-term develop export. Export is the most important, strategic economic priority.

The diversification of the geographical structure of polish export and expansion for the new markets has to be the most important challenge for polish government. The priority should be also the increasing the export of innovated goods.

The export-stimulating instruments of trade policy have to be directed first of all to SMEs enterprises with polish capital. The main barriers for SMEs in participation in the international turnover are still: complicated procedures and lack of informa¬tion. The financial and promotion instruments of export-stimulating policy are still not known and used effective. That is why the most important challenges for polish government should to be also the creation the consistent system of planning and re-alization of the trade policy. The trade and geographical priorities of export-stimulating policy of increasing the polish economy have to be the strategic goals.

Ziółkowski Krzysztof, Zjednoczone Niemcy jako partner handlowy Polski w latach 1990–2009
Unified Germany as Poland's trade partner between the years 1990 and 2009

The tradition of Polish- German economic and political relations reaches far into the past. Undoubtedly however, the most attention-grabbing aspect is the develop-ment of these relations in the 20th century, and, more specifically, during the post-World War I period. This is when Poland was able to regain its independence after more than a hundred years' absence on the political and economic arena.

The year 1990 was exceptional for the German economy due to the country's unification, while also being of significant value to Poland, particularly to the devel-opment of Polish international trade. This is due to the major changes in Poland's ex-ternal linkages. The Polish economy also began shifting its focus from east to west.

At present, Poland is ranked among Germany's top twenty trading partners. We attained 12th/13th place in Germany's global import and 9th in Germany's global ex¬port. Taking into consideration Poland's position among post-communist states, from 1995 onwards Poland became Germany's leading trade partner among Central and Eastern European countries (Russia had lost its leading role). Poland maintained this position until the Czech Republic overtook it in 2001 and this state of affairs continues up till now. The reason for this decline in Poland's position is unquestionably the decline in its role in Germany's global export, together with the slow growth of Germany's global import. At the same time, in 1998 the Czech Republic outpaced Poland as the major exporter to Germany among Central and Eastern European countries, and the imbalance between both of these countries continues to grow.

Nizielska Aleksandra, Kryteria i mierniki atrakcyjności inwestycyjnej regionu
Criteria and Measures of Investment Attractiveness of the Region

The article presents the results of research on investment attractiveness of the region conducted by both representatives of scientific environment and consulting companies. It presents the different definitions of "investment attractiveness" (e.g. real attractiveness, potential attractiveness and perceived attractiveness) and different measures of that concept. The article includes also the main assumption of the research grant "Investment attractiveness of Silesia voivodship" conducted by the team under the leadership of Aleksandra Nizielska. It presents the main criteria which are taken into consideration in the process of evaluation of investment attractiveness of Silesia and the main objectives of field research on the perceived attractiveness of that region.

Stępień Beata, Atrakcyjność obcości – przypadek Polski jako rynku goszczącego
Attractiveness of foreignness - case of Polish host market

The topic discussed here is the paradox of liability of foreignness (LOF). In spite of the long life of this concept and its excessive analysis in international business literature very little is said about the actual value of LOF on particularistic host markets. The example of such a market is Poland analyzed here from MNCs perspective as host country. In spite of the fact, that institutional and cultural distance between NBS of MNC's home markets and this of Polish host market is significant, LOF is much lower than actually expected. In fact in spite of being the liability, the foreign¬ness acts as a source of virtue here, MNCs are often perceived as benchmarks what allows them easy deployment and transplantation of their organizational routines without necessarily changing them so much as expected, what in effect means lower-ing the cost of doing business abroad.

Andrzejczak Beata, Infrastruktura transportu w ocenie inwestorów zagranicznych w Polsce
Transport infrastructure in Poland in the eyes of foreign investors

The inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) to Poland as a form of capital flows started at the beginning of 1990s. The inflow of capital to Poland resulted from the change of the economic system consisting in the transition from centrally planned to market economy. That combined with parallel tendency to economic globalization an internalization made the countries in transition increasingly interested in the in-flow of foreign investment.

The inflow of FDI to Poland in the forthcoming years depends, among the oth-ers, on investment climate. Hence the objective of this paper is to discuss one of its the most important elements, i.e. transport infrastructure. Transport infrastructure in Poland is presented based on the opinions of foreign investors expressed in the study conducted by Polish Information and Foreign Investment Agency.

Sporek Tadeusz, Niemieckie bezpośrednie inwestycje zagraniczne w Polsce
German foreign direct investments in Poland

Processes taking place in world economy, competition on international markets, countries changing their economic policy, liberalization of economics, make easier flows of capital, first of all foreign direct investments. This article's objective is to present volume and structure investments of foreign direct investments, by region and economy in years 1970-2008. Conclusion drawn from concepts and results of earlier empirical research in this field allow formulating hypothesis regarding FDI influence on Germany foreign trade. The analysis is based on World Investment Re¬port from 2008 of the Unites Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) for subject Transnational Corporations and the Infrastructure Challenge.

Gołębiowski Tomasz, Lewandowska Małgorzata, Wpływ kryzysu gospodarczego na zachowania kooperacyjne polskich przedsiębiorstw przemysłu elektromaszynowego
The influence of economic crisis on the cooperation of Polish firms in engineering industry

The paper focuses on the issue of influence of economic crisis on international cooperation of firms in Polish engineering industry. Research has been conducted in March 2009 on the sample of 155 Polish enterprises.

Changing attitudes toward business relationships and changes in collaboration of firms with their Polish and foreign partners are discussed in the context of recent economic crisis. Moreover, the impact of level of firms' export engagement on their co-operative behaviour are presented, and different attitudes toward business relationships in major sub-sectors of engineering industry are discussed.

Half of respondents declare, that the economic crisis had no significant influ¬ence on their business relationships (as in March 2009). Firms declare both reducing their cooperative relations and strengthening them. Moreover, many of them intend to sustain their cooperation with solid partners regardless economic crisis. The interest to strengthen the relations in the future, both with domestic and foreign partners is also declared.

Kisiel Roman, Lizińska Wiesława, Dublaszewska Katarzyna, Fluktuacje na rynku nieruchomości a sytuacja gospodarcza w Polsce
Fluctuations in the real property market and the economic situation in Poland

Knowledge of the fundamental characteristics in the market cycle development in the real property market allows better interpretation of the phenomena taking place in the macroeconomic environment. The basic goal of the paper is an attempt at investigating the economic situation of Poland and determining the influence of the poor global real property market on the process of economic growth. The major economic parameters mentioned and analyzed in the paper include the interest rate, unemployment level, inflation, retail sales level indicators, GDP (growth dynamics) and currency exchange rates. Deterioration of macroeconomic indicators in Poland (decrease of the GDP increase of the unemployment rate by almost 3% during half a year decrease in the level of retail sales) resulted mainly from the poor situation in the Western markets that are the major sales markets and the investors in Polish en¬terprises and institutions. The recession in the Polish economy was caused by rapid fluctuations in the currency exchange rate.

Kłysik-Uryszek Agnieszka, Zakorzenienie przemysłowych spółek z udziałem kapitału zagranicznego w gospodarce województwa łódzkiego
Industrial foreign direct investment's territorial rootedness into the economy of łódzkie voivodship

Globalization and integration to the EU make foreign direct investments more and more important source of capital, technology and know-how in host economies. However, not only the volume of FID is important, but their territorial rootedness into the local environment as well. Vertical and horizontal linkages „ties" FDI into host economies and making spillover effects to be stronger and more stable. Those, in turn, are crucial for sustainable growth of the host economy and improvement of its competitiveness.

The main aim of the article is to discuss the inclination of FDI to create external links in host economies depending on several, chosen criteria (for ex. aim and strategy of entry, size of an enterprise, characteristics of local environment) as well as to present the local cooperation of industrial FDI in the economy of Łódzkie voivodship during 2000-2007.